Browsing by Author "Gunasekara, V. M."

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Glass Ceiling and Women Career Advancement; With Special References to the Executive and Above Level Employees in Automobile Industry in Western Province
(Department of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2024) Prathibha, L.N.; Gunasekara, V. M.
This study investigates the impact of ‘glass ceiling’ on women career advancement the above executive level employees in Automobile Industry in Western Province. Although there is an uptrend in the number of women graduating from tertiary education and more have entered the workforce, they are still under-represented at the top management level in organizations. This present study consider several glass ceiling factor and combined them together as glass ceiling and study the impact of glass ceiling on women career advancement. This study was employed a quantitative approach with self-administered questionnaires distributed to 158 respondents. To test the hypotheses, this study used IBM SPSS analysis software. From the findings of this study the researcher could say that there is a significant impact of glass ceiling on women career advancement in private sectors at Colombo district. Results of this study can be used as a guidance for the human resource departments to create an inclusive working environment for female employees. The study is also important towards improving the understanding of organizations concerning the barriers that hinder women from accessing top management positions in the workplace. Results of this study might also help governments to identify the kinds of support which women need in the workplace.
Impact of E-learning on Student Satisfaction of Final Year Management Undergraduates in Sri Lanka
(Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2022) Warnasooriya, Y. L.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The purpose of this research is to identify the impact of E-learning on student satisfaction in the management undergraduates in Sri Lanka. In addition to that, this study intends to contribute to fill the knowledge gap by looking into the relation between E-learning and Student Satisfaction. Although the concept of organizational e-learning and student satisfaction established more in western and Latin American literature, very few studies have examined these with E-Learning and with student satisfaction in the Sri Lankan context. Hence, this study explored the relationship and examined the influence of those variables among final year management undergraduates who studies in state universities in Sri Lanka. This research is deductive research. This research was conducted using survey research strategy and quantitative research method. Final year management undergraduates in Sri Lanka were chosen as the population of the study. Simple random sampling technique was used calculate the sample size. Accordingly, sample size was 112 and used primary data as data source, data collection was done through a self-administered questionnaire. A Google form was created and distributed to collect data. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), version 23.0 was used as tool for data analysis and both descriptive and inferential statistics, namely correlation and regression were used to analyzed data. The results indicate that E-Learning has significant direct effects on student satisfaction.
Impact of Effectiveness of Performance Evaluation on Individual Work Performance of Non-Executive Level Employees in Selected Construction Company in Sri Lanka
(Department of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2024) Sandeepani, K. T. D.; Gunasekara, V. M.
This research explores the impact of effectiveness of performance evaluation of nonexecutive level employees in selected construction company in Sri Lanka. Utilizing a quantitative approach, the study investigates the relationship between perceived fairness, accuracy and relations with peers and supervisors within the influence on employee performance. And this study investigates the impact of effectiveness of performance evaluation on individual work performance. The analysis draws upon data collected through standardized surveys with non-executive level employees in a construction company. Independent variables, namely, fairness of performance evaluation, accuracy of performance evaluation, relations with peers and supervisors were identified with the aid of literature. Then the dependent variable, ‘individual work performance' was mapped with independent variables to design the conceptual framework. The design of the conceptual framework for this research was built based on previous literature related to this study area. This research is deductive (theory– testing) research. This research was conducted using a survey research strategy and quantitative research method. Data required on the variables were directly gathered from non-executive level employees by sharing a questionnaire in the form of a 'Google form’. The sample size was 114.Then the collected data was screened and cleaned using the SPSS tool before analyzing. Further, SPSS version 23.0 was used to analyze the data by incorporating regression analysis to test the hypotheses defined at the conceptual framework designing stage. Finally, conclusions were drawn. It was evident that there are significant relationships between fairness of performance evaluation, accuracy of performance evaluation, relations with peers and supervisors and there is an impact effectiveness of performance evaluation and individual work performance.
Impact of Flexible Work Arrangements on Work-Life Integration of Middle-Level Employees in the Apparel Industry, Sri Lanka
(Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2022) Veronica, G. A. S.; Gunasekara, V. M.
This study intends to investigate the variables influencing work-life integration and the function of flexible work arrangements in the work-life integration process. Employers are now beginning to prioritize both work and family and have begun to recognize that work and personal life are inseparable and that neither would be completed without the other. Employees use flexible work arrangements to control their working hours, location of work, and quantity of work to meet job requirements. In today’s context managers view flexible work arrangements as a mode of increasing employee satisfaction, retention, commitment, engagement, and motivation towards work. Majority of studies have focused on flexible work arrangements and work-life balance and have placed little consideration on work-life integration, and most of them are focused solely on one organization in the western context. As we are in a post-pandemic era with an ongoing economic crisis within the country moving to flexible work arrangements to maintain an efficient integrated system between work and personal life is becoming an emergent need. As a result, the purpose of this research study is to assess the impact of flexible work arrangements on work-life integration. Hence this research was carried out as a quantitative, cross-sectional field study among a sample of 136 middle-level employees in the apparel industry. Primary data were collected using a standard questionnaire through online mode and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used as the data analysis tool. Accordingly, descriptive statistics, inferential statistics namely regression and correlation analysis were used to analyze data. Results generated through the study indicates that there is a significant impact of flexible work arrangements on work-life integration.
Impact of Flexible Working Arrangements on Organizational Commitment: with the mediating role of Work Life Balance
(Department of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2024) Rathnayake, W.D.P.; Gunasekara, V. M.
Glove manufacturing industry holds an important place in Sri Lanka’s exporting industry and provides more than 5% of the global demand for a range of gloves. It is important to consider about employee commitment because employees who are well committed to the organization are remaining with the company and others are not continuing long time with the organization. With the current situation of the country, organizations have not been able to achieve the expected commitment from their employees. So, nowadays companies paying more attention about their employees and tending towards flexibility of employees working. Flexibility become as a major concept in current workforce, and it will lead to managing employee work and life responsibilities and important to performing both roles into their expected level. Therefore, this study is conducted to assess the impact flexible working arrangements on organizational commitment with the mediating role of work life balance of executive and above employees in the glove manufacturing industry in the Colombo district, Sri Lanka. This was carried out as a cross-sectional field study among a sample of 163 executive and above employees in the glove manufacturing industry in the Colombo district, Sri Lanka. Simple random sampling was applied, and the primary data was collected through a standard questionnaire as google form via online mode through survey. The collected data were analyzed with the support of the SPSS through simple linear regression, and descriptive statistics. Further, flexible working arrangements act as the independent variable, organizational commitment acts as the dependent variable, and work life balance acts as the mediating variable. As the result, researcher found that there is a significant impact of flexible working arrangements on organizational commitment, there is a significant impact of flexible working arrangements on work life balance and there is a significant impact of work life balance on organizational commitment. Further, work life balance is significantly mediating the relationship between flexible working arrangements on organizational commitment. It is recommended to take necessary actions to implement the flexible working arrangements in glove manufacturing organizations to improve employee work life balance and organizational commitment.
Impact of Health & Safety Practices on Employee Retention Intention: Study of Operational Level Employees of a Selected Manufacturing Company in Sri Lanka
(Department of of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2021) Seuwandi, P. S. N.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of health and safety practices on employee retention in the selected manufacturing company in Sri Lanka. This study was conducted as a quantitative explanatory research study. Further, the sample was selected using simple random sampling technique. This is a cross-sectional survey study & standard questionnaire was used to collect primary data through a survey. Questionnaires were distributed to a sample of 125 of operational level employees who are currently working in Alumex PLC. To analyze received data, SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science) was used. To interpret data descriptive statistical techniques such as mean, standard deviation and histograms, correlation and coefficient and simple regression analysis were used. To test the relationship between variables Pearson correlation technique analysis was used. Simple regression analysis was used to identify the degree of the impact of the independent variable on dependent variable. And the finding of the study showed that health & safety practices, safety procedure & risk management, health and safety rules, organizational hazards prevention, organizational safety support have a positive impact on employee retention. Meanwhile, employee wellness program has a negative impact on employee retention. The present study would provide the direction to HR policy makers, management decision makers and for future researchers.
Impact of Job Burnout on Work Motivation of Executive Employees in Glove Manufacturing Industry in Colombo District, Sri Lanka
(Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2022) Ekanayake, E. M. G.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The purpose of this study was to identify whether there is an impact of job burnout on the work motivation of executive employees in the glove manufacturing industry in the Colombo district, Sri Lanka. Study was carried out as a cross-sectional field study among a sample of 131 executive employees in the glove manufacturing industry in the Colombo district, Sri Lanka. Simple random sampling was applied to select the sample. Primary data was collected through a standard questionnaire as google form via online mode. The collected data were analyzed with the support of the SPSS employing correlation, regression, and descriptive statistics. Furthermore, the burnout acts as the independent variable, and work motivation acts as the dependent variable. Study findings revealed that there is a negative impact between job burnout and work motivation, and a negative relationship of job burnout and work motivation through effort. This study's findings provide better guidance for the executive employees in the glove industry to become more productive and effective. The study recommends take necessary actions to develop executive employees’ motivation appropriately.
Impact of Job Stress on Employee Performance of Executive and Above Employees in ABC Telecommunication Company
(Department of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2024) Senavirathna, M.A.S.T.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The purpose of this research is to identify the impact of Job Stress (in the form of Role ambiguity, Underutilization of skills and Work overload) on Employee Performance of executive and above employees in ABC Telecommunication Company. In addition to that, this study intends to contribute to filling the knowledge gap by looking into the relationship between Job Stress and Employee Performance. Although there is enough literature on Role ambiguity, Underutilization of skills, Work overload, and Job Stress in the western region. There is less research context in Sri Lanka to test the Job Stress on Employee Performance, especially in the Telecommunication industry. This study explored the relationship and examined the influence of Role ambiguity, Underutilization of skills and Work overload those variables on Employee Performance of executive and above employees in ABC Telecommunication Company. This research is deductive (theory–testing) research. This research was conducted using a survey research strategy is quantitative research method. Executive and above employees in ABC Telecommunication company were chosen as the population of the study. The sample size was 300, data collection was done through a self-administered questionnaire and Convenience sampling technique. A Google form was created and distributed to collect data. The number of employees who responded was 176 among 300 employees. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), version 23.0 was used as a tool for data analysis and both descriptive and inferential statistics, namely correlation and regression were used to analyze data. The results indicate that Job stress negatively impact to the Employee Performance.
Impact of Leadership Style on Employee Loyalty with mediating effect of Employee Engagement of Selected Private Hospitals Nursing Staff in Colombo District
(Department of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2024) Sandunika, N. G. N.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of leadership style on employee loyalty with mediating effect of employee engagement. In addition to that, this study intends to contribute to filling the literature gap by looking into the relation between leadership style, employee loyalty and mediating role of employee engagement. Although the associations between leadership style and employee loyalty are well established in western literature, very few studies have examined the mediating role of employee engagement with above two variables. When it comes to Sri Lankan setting, there were not many research findings. Hence this was quantitative and crosssectional research study. Primary data were collected through a standard questionnaire distributed via Google form. The collected data were analyzed with the support of the SPSS employing correlation analysis, regression, and descriptive statistics. Simple regression analysis and correlation was used to test the study hypotheses. Analyzed results showed a positive impact of leadership style on employee loyalty and mediating role of employee engagement. The independent variable is leadership style, dependent variable is employee loyalty and mediating variable is employee engagement. Further, primary data was collected from nursing cadre of selected private hospitals from Colombo district. The study results clearly underlined or raise the need for private hospitals to look at their nursing cadre’s loyalty as well as engagement and leadership style with a more serious and holistic approach.
Impact of Learning Styles on Learning Effectiveness of Final Year Management Undergraduates in State Universities in Western Province, Sri Lanka
(Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2022) Upathissa, M. P. V. R.; Gunasekara, V. M.
Learning is one of the most critical aspects in the current society. Hence, the general objective of this study was to identify the impact of learning styles on the learning effectiveness of final-year Management Undergraduates in state universities in Western Province, Sri Lanka. Owing to objective, the researcher built the conceptual framework for the study based on the prior literature. The independent variable was learning styles, and the dependent variable was learning effectiveness. This research exhibits quantitative nature and uses primary data to enrich findings by issuing a standard questionnaire. The population of the current study comprises of the final year undergraduates of Management Faculties in Western province. Further, this study was carried out as a cross-sectional field study and applied the hypothetical-deductive approach. At the analysis stage of this research, the data acquired from primary sources were utilized. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was essentially used to evaluate the primary questionnaire's statistical data. Through the findings obtained, researchers summarize that there is no significant relationship between visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles with learning effectiveness of students. There have been some reasons that could affect the rejection of the hypotheses of the study. Some are, most of the research were done in a European context and that may not be applicable to Asian context. Also, the nature of the sample and the amount of sample can affect to reject the hypothesis.
Impact of Millennials’ Work Passion on Career Performance: Study of Millennials in Banking Sector in Sri Lanka
(Department of of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2021) Vindi, D. A.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The purpose of this study was to examine impact of millennials work passion on career performance in banking sector in Sri Lanka. This study was carried out as a quantitative explanatory research work. Further, the sampling technique used was simple random sampling. This is a cross-sectional descriptive research & standard questionnaire was used to collect primary data through a survey. Questionnaires were distributed to a sample of 168 of millennials who are currently working in banks. To analyze data, SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science) was used. To interpret data graphical charts, descriptive statistical techniques such as mean, mode, standard deviation and histograms, correlation and coefficient, simple regression analysis and residual analysis were used. To test the relationship between variables Pearson correlation technique was used. Simple regression analysis was used to identify the degree of impact the independent variable on dependent variable. The study found that there is a significant positive relationship between work passion and career performance with mediating impact of job security of millennials and mediation effect of Job security on work passion and career performance was significant. The present study would provide direction to the employees in other age categories and companies in other industries and for future researchers.
IMPACT OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY PRACTICES ON JOB ENGAGEMENT OF NON-EXECUTIVE TEA FACTORY WORKERS IN MATARA DISTRICT
(Department of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka., 2025) Kaushalya, J. A. N.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The main focus of the research study is to investigate the impact of occupational health and safety practices on the job engagement of non-executive tea factory workers in Matara District, Sri Lanka. The study aims to investigate how factors like health and safety training, health and safety working environment and conditions, hazard prevention, and health & safety rules/policies affect the job engagement of non-executive workers in the tea industry. This research is deductive (theory–testing) research. The research was conducted using a survey research strategy and quantitative research method. Non-executive tea factory workers in Matara District were chosen as the population of the study. The sample size was 151, and data collection was done through a standard questionnaire. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), version 23.0 was used as a tool for data analysis, and both descriptive and inferential statistics, namely correlation and regression, were used to analyze data. The results indicate that occupational health and safety practices have a significant impact on the job engagement of non-executive tea factory workers in Matara District.
Impact of Students’ Motivation on Learning Effectiveness: Mediating Effect of Effort (Study of Undergraduates in Sri Lankan State Universities)
(Department of of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2021) Wedhawansha, R. N. S.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of students’ motivation on learning effectiveness of undergraduates in Sri Lankan State Universities. This study was carried out as quantitative explanatory research. Further, the sample was selected using simple random sampling technique. This is a cross sectional study & standard questionnaire was used to collect primary data through a survey. Questionnaires were distributed to a sample of 260 of undergraduates. To analyze data, SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science) was used. To interpret data graphical charts, descriptive statistical techniques such as mean, mode, standard deviation and histograms, correlation and coefficient, simple regression analysis and Sobel test were used. To test the relationship between variables Pearson correlation analysis was used. Simple regression analysis was used to identify the degree of the impact of the independent variable on dependent variable. And it was found that there is a significant moderate positive impact of students’ motivation on learning effectiveness. To test the mediating effect Sobel test was used. It was found that effort has a partial mediation in the relationship between students’ motivation and learning effectiveness. The present study would provide the direction to university administrators, academic staff and undergraduates.
Impact of Supervisor’s Support on Employee Motivation in Virtual Team in Beverages Industry in Sri Lanka
(Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2022) Weerasooriya, T. C.; Gunasekara, V. M.
Organization today use virtual team as a business tool. The aim of this research is to find impact of supervisor’s support on employee motivation in virtual team in beverages industry in Sri Lanka. The specific objectives are examining the impact of supervisor’s support on workload in virtual team, examine the impact of workload on employee motivation in virtual team and examine the mediating effect on workload on the relationship between supervisor’s support and employee motivation. This was carried out as a cross sectional field study among a sample of 107 staff worker in beverages industry in Sri Lanka. Simple random sampling was applied to select the sample. Primary data were collected by adopting standard measurement scale via an online questionnaire survey. The collected data were analyzed with the support of SPSS employing correlation, regression and descriptive statistics. Further, workload acts as the partial mediator for impact of supervisor’s support on employee motivation. It is found that there is a significant impact of supervisor’s support on employee motivation, and a significant impact on supervisor’s support on employee motivation through workload is found. The finding of this study serves as a guideline for the businesses that use virtual team for their work, Management practitioners & policy makers in the country. It is recommended to beverages industry organization to take necessary action to developed employee motivation in an appropriate manner.
Impact of the Effectiveness of Perceived Human Resource Management Practices on Employee Retention among Executive Level Employees in Selected Leading Insurance Company in Sri Lanka
(Department of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2024) Senanayaka, D. S.; Gunasekara, V. M.
In today’s business world, employee retention is considered as one of the muchdebated topics and identifying the reasons for employee turnover and implementing the necessary policies to retain employees can be crucial. Thus, all organizations hope to minimize the employee turnover to best possible level. Therefore, the intention of this research is to study the impact of the effectiveness of perceived Human Resource Management practices on employee retention, conducted on the one of leading insurance company in Sri Lanka. Insurance sector is recognized as an emerging sector in Sri Lanka, and this sector is well known as an under-researched area. This study is significant as such research projects have been sparse in the Sri Lankan context and to fill that gap this research have been conducted. The analysis was mainly based on 105 executive level employees from the Company selected through convenience sampling. Primary data were collected using a self-administrated questionnaire and analyzed through deductive approach. According to the results obtained through regression analysis indicated that there is less impact of HRM practices on employee retention. As a conclusion when management of Insurance sector formulate the policies in their organizations regarding employee retention, they should consider not only the HR practices but also, they have to concern about other factors that can affect on employees.
Impact of Work from Home on Employee Engagement of Executive Level Employees in a Selected Apparel Company in Sri Lanka
(Department of of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2021) Vithana, R. D. M.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The purpose of this research was to identify the impact of work from home on employee engagement. In addition to that, this study intends to contribute to fill the literature gap by looking into the relation between work from home and employee engagement. Although the work from home and employee engagement are well established in western literature, few studies have examined work from home and employee engagement in the Sri Lankan context, especially in the apparel industry’s executive positions. Most of the previous studies have been done within ICT, academic and technology-based organizations. This study explored the relationship and examined the impact of those variables among executive level employees who work in an apparel Company in Sri Lanka. This research is deductive research. This research was conducted using survey research strategy and quantitative research method. Executive level employees of Stretchline (Private) Limited were chosen as the population of the study. Simple random sampling method was used the sampling technique. Accordingly, sample size was 113. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), version 23.0 was used as the data analysis software in this research study. The results indicate that there is a significant impact of work from home on employee engagement.
Impact of Work Life Balance on Employee Career Progression on Selected Insurance Company in Sri Lanka
(Department of of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2021) Weerakkodi, W. A. J. C.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The purpose of this study was to identify the impact of work-life balance on employee career progression. In addition to that, this study intended to contribute to filling the literature gap by looking into the relationship between work-life balance and employee career progression. Although the associations between work-life balance and employee career progression are well established in western literature, very few studies have examined the indicators of work-life balance such as leave policy, flexible working arrangement, welfare policy, and family responsibility with employee career progression in the Sri Lankan context, especially in the insurance industry. This study explored the relationship and examined the influence of those variables among employees working in a co-corporative insurance company within Sri Lankan context. Hence this was a quantitative and cross-sectional research study. The data were collected using a self-administered questionnaires and internet-based by using a Simple random sampling technique. Simple regression analysis was used to test the study hypotheses. Analyzed results showed a positive impact of leave policy, flexible working arrangements, welfare policy, and family responsibility on employee career progression. The study results clearly underlined the potential of the firm’s involvement in work-life balance in influencing the employee attitude and behavior which means the level of employee career progression. Furthermore, this study raises the need for companies to look at their employee’s work-life balance on employee career progression in a more serious and holistic approach.
Impact of Work-Family Conflict on Women’s Career Development with the Moderating Role of Perceived Supervisor Support
(Department of Human Resource Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2024) Sammani, K. A. S. M.; Gunasekara, V. M.
The main purpose of this study was to examine the impact of work-family conflict on women’s career development of senior executive and above-level female employees in the insurance sector in the Colombo district, Sri Lanka. This was carried out as a cross-sectional field study among a sample of 136 senior executive and above-level employees in the insurance sector in the Colombo district, Sri Lanka. Simple random sampling was applied to select the sample. Primary data was collected through a standard questionnaire as Google form via online mode through survey. The collected data were analyzed with the support of the SPSS employing regression, correlation, and descriptive statistics. Further, work-family conflict acts as the independent variable, women’s career development acts as the dependent variable and perceived supervisory support acts as the moderator. While work-family conflict is evaluated using indicators such as work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict. Women's career development is evaluated using the indication of career goal process, professional ability development, promotion speed, and remuneration growth. The finding discovered that work-family conflict was a reason for the poor career development of female employees in the insurance sector and also this was significantly impacted by the moderator, perceived supervisor support. It is recommended that the insurance sector take necessary actions to develop the careers of female employees while reducing their work-family conflict.
Impact of Workload on Work Stress Level of Lower-Level Employees in Apparel Industry Sri Lanka
(Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka, 2022) Vihangi, P. L. K.; Gunasekara, V. M.
Over the years intention to quit is largely influenced by work stress and workload. These variables are factors that influence the intention to quit and possible turnover in a company. The aim of this research is to examine the impact of work stress and workload on lower-level employees in the apparel industry Sri Lanka. This study employed simple random sampling method. The questionnaire was distributed online and analyzed using SPSS Version 25 software. The findings show that workload and intention to leave have a positive relationship. Then the results of the regression analysis revealed the extent of contribution of different factors on work stress of the garment sector lower-level employees in Sri Lanka. Furthermore, the study found that job uncertainty, long working hour, less time for family and lack of administrative support are significantly and positively related and increased job stress for lower-level workers.